static void Main(string[] args)
{
// We'll use these Guy and Random instances throughout this example.
Guy bob = new Guy("Bob", 43, 100);
Guy joe = new Guy("Joe", 41, 100);
Random random = new Random();
/*
* Here are two useful keywords that you can use with loops. The "continue" keyword
* tells the loop to jump to the next iteration of a loop, and the "break" keyword
* tells the loop to end immediately.
*
* The break, continue, throw, and return statements are called "jump statements"
* because they cause your program to jump to another place in the code when they're
* executed. (You learned about break with switch/case statements in Chapter 8, and
* the throw statement in Chapter 10.) There's one more jump statement, goto, which
* jumps to a label. (You'll recognize these labels as having very similar syntax
* to what you use in a case statement.)
*
* You could easily write this next loop without continue and break. That's a good
* example of how C# lets you do the same thing many different ways. That's why you
* don't need break, continue, or any of these other keywords or operators to write
* any of the programs in this book.
*
* The break statement is also used with "case", which you can see in chapter 8.
*/
while (true)
{
int amountToGive = random.Next(20);
// The continue keyword jumps to the next iteration of a loop
// Use the continue keyword to only give Joe amounts over 10 bucks
if (amountToGive < 10)
continue;
// The break keyword terminates a loop early
if (joe.ReceiveCash(bob.GiveCash(amountToGive)) == 0)
break;
Console.WriteLine("Bob gave Joe {0} bucks, Joe has {1} bucks, Bob has {2} bucks",
amountToGive, joe.Cash, bob.Cash);
}
Console.WriteLine("Bob's left with {0} bucks", bob.Cash);
// The ?: conditional operator is an if/then/else collapsed into a single expression
// [boolean test] ? [statement to execute if true] : [statement to execute if false]
Console.WriteLine("Bob {0} more cash than Joe",
bob.Cash > joe.Cash ? "has" : "does not have");
// The ?? null coalescing operator checks if a value is null, and either returns
// that value if it's not null, or the value you specify if it is
// [value to test] ?? [value to return if it's null]
bob = null;
Console.WriteLine("Result of ?? is '{0}'", bob ?? joe);
// Here's a loop that uses goto statements and labels. It's rare to see them, but
// they can be useful with nested loops. (The break statement only breaks out of
// the innermost loop)
for (int i = 0; i < 10; i++)
{
for (int j = 0; j < 3; j++)
{
if (i > 3)
goto afterLoop;
Console.WriteLine("i = {0}, j = {1}", i, j);
}
}
afterLoop:
// When you use the = operator to make an assignment, it returns a value that you
// can turn around and use in an assignment or an if statement
int a;
int b = (a = 3 * 5);
Console.WriteLine("a = {0}; b = {1};", a, b);
// When you put the ++ operator before a variable, it increments the variable
// first, and then executes the rest of the statement.
a = ++b * 10;
Console.WriteLine("a = {0}; b = {1};", a, b);
// Putting it after the variable executes the statement first and then increments
a = b++ * 10;
Console.WriteLine("a = {0}; b = {1};", a, b);
/*
* When you use && and || to do logical tests, they "short-circuit" -- which means
* that as soon as the test fails, they stop executing. When (A || B) is being
* evaluated, if A is true then (A || B) will always be true no matter what B is.
* And when (A && B) is being evaluated, then if A is false then (A && B) will always
* be false no matter what B is. In both of those cases, B will never get executed
* because the operator doesn't need its value in order to come up with a return value.
*/
int x = 0;
int y = 10;
int z = 20;
// y / x will throw a DivideByZeroException because x is 0. But since (y < z) is true,
// the || operator knows it will be true without ever having to execute the other
// statement, so it short-circuits and never executes (y / x == 4)
if ((y < z) || (y / x == 4))
Console.WriteLine("this line printed because || short-circuited");
// Since (y > z) is false, the && operator knows it will return false without
// executing the other statement, so it short-circuits and doesn't throw the exception
if ((y > z) && (y / x == 4))
Console.WriteLine("this line will never print because && short-circuited");
/*
* A lot of us think of 1's and 0's when we think of programming, and manipulating
* those 1's and 0's is what logic operators are all about.
*/
// Use Convert.ToString() and Convert.ToInt32() to convert a number to or from a
// string of 1's and 0's in its binary form. The second argument specifies that you're
// converting to base 2.
string binaryValue = Convert.ToString(217, 2);
int intValue = Convert.ToInt32(binaryValue, 2);
Console.WriteLine("Binary {0} is integer {1}", binaryValue, intValue);
// The &, |, ^, and ~ operators are logical AND, OR, XOR, and bitwise complement
int val1 = Convert.ToInt32("100000001", 2);
int val2 = Convert.ToInt32("001010100", 2);
int or = val1 | val2;
int and = val1 & val2;
int xor = val1 ^ val2;
int not = ~val1;
// Print the values -- and use the String.PadLeft() method to add leading 0's
Console.WriteLine("val1: {0}", Convert.ToString(val1, 2));
Console.WriteLine("val2: {0}", Convert.ToString(val2, 2).PadLeft(9, '0'));
Console.WriteLine(" or: {0}", Convert.ToString(or, 2).PadLeft(9, '0'));
Console.WriteLine(" and: {0}", Convert.ToString(and, 2).PadLeft(9, '0'));
Console.WriteLine(" xor: {0}", Convert.ToString(xor, 2).PadLeft(9, '0'));
Console.WriteLine(" not: {0}", Convert.ToString(not, 2).PadLeft(9, '0'));
// Notice what the ~ operator returned: 11111111111111111111111011111110
// It's the 32-bit complement of val1: 00000000000000000000000100000001
// The logical operators are operating on int, which is a 32-bit integer.
// The << and >> operators shift bits left and right. And you can combine any
// logical operator with =, so >>= or &= is just like += or *=.
int bits = Convert.ToInt32("11", 2);
for (int i = 0; i < 5; i++)
{
bits <<= 2;
Console.WriteLine(Convert.ToString(bits, 2).PadLeft(12, '0'));
}
for (int i = 0; i < 5; i++)
{
bits >>= 2;
Console.WriteLine(Convert.ToString(bits, 2).PadLeft(12, '0'));
}
// You can instantiate a new object and call a method on it without
// using a variable to refer to it.
Console.WriteLine(new Guy("Harry", 47, 376).ToString());
// We've used the + operator for string concatenation throughout the book, and that
// works just fine. However, a lot of people avoid using + in loops that will have
// to execute many times over time, because each time + executes it creates an extra
// object on the heap that will need to be garbage collected later. That's why .NET
// has a class called StringBuilder, which is great for efficiently creating and
// concatenating strings together. Its Append() method adds a string onto the end,
// AppendFormat() appends a formatted string (using {0} and {1} just like
// String.Format() and Console.WriteLine() do), and AppendLine() adds a string
// with a line break at the end. To get the final concatenated string, call
// its ToString() method.
StringBuilder stringBuilder = new StringBuilder("Hi ");
stringBuilder.Append("there, ");
stringBuilder.AppendFormat("{0} year old guy named {1}. ", joe.Age, joe.Name);
stringBuilder.AppendLine("Nice weather we're having.");
Console.WriteLine(stringBuilder.ToString());
Console.ReadKey();
/*
* This is a good start, but it's by no means complete. Luckily, Microsoft gives you
* a reference that has a complete list of all of the C# operators, keywords, and
* other features of the language. Take a look through it -- and if you're just getting
* started with C#, don't worry if it seems a little difficult to understand. MSDN
* is a great source of information, but it's meant to be a reference, not a learning
* or teaching guide.
*
* C# Programmer Reference: http://msdn.microsoft.com/en-us/library/618ayhy6.aspx
* C# Operators: http://msdn.microsoft.com/en-us/library/6a71f45d.aspx
* C# Keywords: http://msdn.microsoft.com/en-us/library/x53a06bb.aspx
*/
}